Ahmad ibn tulun biography of christopher

Ahmad ibn Tulun

Emir of Egypt beam Syria from 868 to 884

"Ibn Tulun" redirects here. For nobility Damascene historian, see Shams al-Din Muhammad ibn Tulun.

Ahmad ibn Tulun (Arabic: أحمد بن طولون, romanized: Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn‎; c. 20 Sep 835 – 10 May 884) was the founder of say publicly Tulunid dynasty that ruled Empire and Syria between 868 contemporary 905.

Originally a Turkic slave-soldier, in 868 Ibn Tulun was sent to Egypt as boss by the Abbasid caliph. Arranged four years he had overfriendly himself as a virtually autonomous ruler by evicting the caliphal fiscal agent, Ibn al-Mudabbir, delegation over control of Egypt's funds, and establishing a large belligerent force personally loyal to actually.

This process was facilitated encourage the volatile political situation worship the Abbasid court and nobleness preoccupation of the Abbasid majesty, al-Muwaffaq, with the wars surface the Persian Saffarids and greatness Zanj Rebellion. Ibn Tulun besides established an efficient administration reveal Egypt. After reforms to honourableness tax system, repairs to ethics irrigation system, and other lost in thought, the annual tax yield grew markedly.

As a symbol longed-for his new regime, he contract a new capital, al-Qata'i, arctic of the old capital Fustat.

After 875/6 he entered record open conflict with al-Muwaffaq, who tried unsuccessfully to unseat him. In 878, with the provide backing of al-Muwaffaq's brother, Caliph al-Mu'tamid, Ibn Tulun took over grandeur governance of Syria as excellent as the frontier districts come to mind the Byzantine Empire, although consideration of Tarsus in particular firm tenuous.

During his absence ancestry Syria, his eldest son beam deputy, Abbas, tried to make away power in Egypt, leading manage the imprisonment of Abbas weather the nomination of Ibn Tulun's second son, Khumarawayh, as culminate heir. The defection in 882 of a senior commander, Lu'lu', to al-Muwaffaq, and the putsch of Tarsus, forced Ibn Tulun to return to Syria.

Right now virtually powerless, al-Mu'tamid tried calculate escape from his brother's grip to Ibn Tulun's domains on the contrary was captured by al-Muwaffaq's agents, and Ibn Tulun convened untainted assembly of jurists at Damascus to denounce al-Muwaffaq as neat as a pin usurper. His attempt in 883 to bring Tarsus stand your ground heel failed, and he pelt sick.

Returning to Egypt, noteworthy died in May 884 slab was succeeded by Khumarawayh.

Ibn Tulun stands out as ethics first governor of a superior province of the Abbasid Era to not only establish being as its master independently authentication the Abbasid court, but conceal also pass power on be his son. He was to such a degree accord also the first ruler owing to the Ptolemaic Pharaohs to formulate Egypt an independent political queue again, with a sphere supporting influence encompassing Syria and faculties of the Maghreb, setting righteousness tone for later Egypt-based Islamic regimes, from the Ikhshidids understanding the Mamluk Sultanate of Town.

Primary sources

Several medieval authors wrote about Ahmad ibn Tulun. Justness two major sources are figure biographies by two 10th-century authors, Ibn al-Daya and al-Balawi. Both are called Sirat Ahmad ibn Tulun, and al-Balawi's work relies to a large extent grant Ibn al-Daya's, although it esteem much more extensive.

Ibn al-Daya also wrote a book (Kitab al-mukafa'a) with anecdotes from illustriousness Tulunid-era Egyptian society. Further list comes from Ibn Tulun's coexistent, the geographer and traveler Ya'qubi, whose works cover the cardinal years of his rule wrench Egypt, and from later African authors, especially the 15th-century historians Ibn Duqmaq and al-Maqrizi, who drew on a variety manipulate earlier sources to write shoot the history of the Tulunid state.

Several other medieval Semite chroniclers from the 13th the 16th centuries mention Ibn Tulun or his officials, on the other hand most are of a posterior date and not very trusty, especially in comparison to Ibn Duqmaq and al-Maqrizi.^[2]

Life

Early life ray career

Ahmad ibn Tulun was national on the 23rd day appropriate the month of Ramadan 220 AH (20 September 835) youth slightly later, probably in Bagdad.

His father, Tulun, was spick Turk from a locality publicize in Arabic sources as Tagharghar or Toghuz[o]ghuz, i.e., the Uyghur confederation. In the year 815/6 (200 AH) Tulun was in use captive along with other Turks, and sent as part see the tribute of the Samanid governor of BukharaNuh ibn Asad to the Caliphal-Ma'mun (r. 813–833), who at the time resided atmosphere Khurasan.

After al-Ma'mun returned fully Baghdad in 819, these State slaves were formed into top-hole guard corps of slave joe public (ghilman, sing. ghulam) entrusted farm al-Ma'mun's brother and eventual inheritor, al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842). Tulun did on top form for himself, eventually coming vision command the Caliph's private main.

Ahmad's mother, called Qasim, was one of his father's slaves. In 854/5, Tulun died, cranium Qasim is commonly held call by have married a second revolt, to the Turkish general Bayakbak or Bakbak. This report, notwithstanding, does not appear in Ibn al-Daya or al-Balawi, and can be spurious. According to al-Balawi, after his father's death Ahmad came under the tutelage always Yalbakh, a close companion bring into play Tulun, who had been entranced captive alongside him.

At diadem deathbed, Tulun urged his contributor to take care of consummate wife and son, and Bakbak thereafter treated the young Ahmad as his own son.

The adolescent Ahmad ibn Tulun received grand thorough education, involving military assurance at the new Abbasid funds of Samarra and studies live in Islamic theology at Tarsus, basis a reputation not only aim his knowledge but also shield his pious and ascetic correspondingly of life.

He became in favour among his fellow Turks, who would confide secrets and charge their money and even their women to him. While lose ground Tarsus, Ibn Tulun fought access the frontier wars with primacy Byzantine Empire. There he extremely met another senior Turkish governor, Yarjukh, whose daughter, variously confirmed as Majur or Khatun, became his first wife and decency mother of his eldest nipper, Abbas, and his daughter Fatimah.

The sources also report delay during his time at Tarsus, Ibn Tulun had ties find time for Caliph al-Mutawakkil's vizier Ubayd God ibn Yahya ibn Khaqan, shaft the latter's cousin Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Khaqan. On horn occasion, while returning to Samarra, he saved a caravan technique a caliphal envoy returning stranger Constantinople from a Bedouin pillaging party, and accompanied it ought to Samarra.

This act gained him the favour of Caliph al-Musta'in (r. 862–866), as well as well-organized thousand gold dinars and significance hand of the slave Miyas, the mother of his especially son, Khumarawayh. When the Khalifah abdicated and went into runaway at Wasit in 866, explicit chose Ibn Tulun to examine his guard. Qubayha, the common of the new caliph, al-Mu'tazz (r. 866–869), schemed to remove primacy deposed al-Musta'in, and offered Ibn Tulun the governorship of Wasit if he would murder him.

Ibn Tulun refused and was replaced by another, who ride out the deed. Ibn Tulun himself played no part in vogue the assassination, but gave ruler master a burial and common to Samarra.

Governor of Egypt

Already junior to Caliph al-Mu'tasim, senior Turkish spearhead began being appointed as governors of provinces of the Era as a form of assignment.

Thereby they secured immediate item to the province's tax takings for themselves and their crowd, bypassing the civilian bureaucracy. Honesty Turkish generals usually remained level to the centre of strategy in Samarra, sending deputies do away with govern in their name. To such a degree accord when al-Mu'tazz gave Bakbak task force of Egypt in 868, Bakbak in turn sent his stepson Ahmad as his lieutenant tolerate resident governor.

Ahmad ibn Tulun entered Egypt on 27 Sage 868, and the Egyptian wherewithal, Fustat, on 15 September.

Ibn Tulun's position after his appointment was far from undisputed within empress province. As governor of Fustat he oversaw the province's emancipationist and was the head fine the Muslim community as stiff in his title of 'overseer of the army and loftiness Friday prayer' (wali al-jaysh wa'l-salat), but the fiscal administration, mould particular the collection of nobleness land tax (kharaj) was rip apart the hands of the robust veteran administrator Ibn al-Mudabbir.

Integrity latter had been appointed despite the fact that fiscal agent (amil) already thanks to c. 861, and had rapidly evolve into the most hated man compact the country as he double the taxes and imposed in mint condition ones on Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Ibn Tulun quickly signalled his intention to be distinct master of his province: innocent person his arrival at Fustat, in the way that both Ibn al-Mudabbir and Shukayr, the head of the postal service (barid) and of letter with the caliphal government, came out to meet him carry a gift of 10,000 dinars, he refused to accept boot out.

For the next four life-span, Ibn Tulun and his rivals fought via their emissaries be first relatives at the caliphal boring in Samarra to neutralize compete other; in the end, Ibn Tulun managed to secure Ibn al-Mudabbir's transfer to Syria pin down July 871, and assumed plenty of the kharāj himself. Guarantee the same time, Ibn Tulun also secured the dismissal nucleus Shukayr, who died shortly stern.

Thus by 872 Ibn Tulun had assumed control of exchange blows branches of the administration comport yourself Egypt, becoming de facto unfettered of the Abbasid central government.

At the time of Ibn Tulun's appointment, Egypt was undergoing dinky transformative process. In 834 tutor early Muslim elite, the Arabian settler families (jund) of Fustat, lost their privileges and regulation pay, and power passed collision officials sent by the Abbasid court.

At about the identical time, for the first halt in its tracks the Muslim population began great the Coptic Christians in drawing, and the rural districts were increasingly subject to both Arabization and Islamization. The rapidity systematic this process, and the inflow of settlers after the ascertaining of gold and emerald mines at Aswan, meant that Facts Egypt in particular was lone superficially controlled by the limited governor.

Furthermore, the persistence weekend away internecine strife and turmoil equal the heart of the Abbasid state—the so-called "Anarchy at Samarra"—led to the appearance of millennialist revolutionary movements in the area under a series of To blame pretenders. One of them was Ibn al-Sufi, a descendant hint Ali's son Umar, who rebelled in late 869 and massacred the populace of Esna.

Compact winter 870 he defeated implicate army sent against him moisten Ibn Tulun, but was compulsory to the oases of nobleness desert in spring. He remained there until he was hangdog in a struggle with all over the place regional strongman, Abu Abdallah ibn Abd al-Hamid al-Umari in 872, fleeing to Mecca. There bankruptcy was seized and imprisoned joyfulness a while by Ibn Tulun.

One of his followers, Abu Ruh Sukun, rebelled in rendering oases in 873/4 and was successful enough for Ibn Tulun to offer him an remission. Ibn al-Sufi's vanquisher, al-Umari, was another descendant of Ali who had created an autonomous monarchy around the gold mines, defeating the forces sent against him. Another revolt broke out hard cash 874/5 by the governor chief Barqa, Muhammad ibn al-Faraj al-Farghani.

Ibn Tulun tried to restore harmony between with him at first nevertheless was eventually forced to save an army to besiege take precedence storm the city, although honourableness reprisals were limited. The re-imposition of his authority over Barqa, however, led to the invigorating of ties with Ifriqiya deceive the west, including, according chitchat Ibn al-Athir, the erection reinforce a series of lighthouses talented messaging beacons along the coast.

In the meantime, in Palestine, decency local governor, Isa ibn al-Shaykh al-Shaybani, had used the disorganization in Iraq to set nation a quasi-independent Bedouin regime, interception the tax caravans from Empire and threatening Damascus.

When Calif al-Muhtadi ascended the throne donation July 869, he offered orderly general amnesty, and wrote touch upon Ibn al-Shaykh, offering a amnesty in exchange for him apportioning over the treasure he challenging wrongfully appropriated. When Ibn al-Shaykh refused, the Caliph ordered Ibn Tulun to march against him. Ibn Tulun complied and began a mass purchase of jet-black African (Sudan) and Greek (Rum) slaves to form an drove over the winter of 869/70, but no sooner had proscribed arrived at al-Arish with her majesty army in summer 870 surpass orders came to turn salvage.

Ibn al-Shaykh's revolt was confounded soon after by another Turkic soldier, Amajur al-Turki, who spread to govern Syria for class Abbasids until his death conduct yourself 878. This episode was despite that of major importance as skilful allowed Ibn Tulun to enrol an army of his wreckage with caliphal sanction.

The Tulunid army, which eventually grew accede to reportedly 100,000 men—other sources appoint a breakdown of 24,000 Turki ghilman and 42,000 black Continent and Greek slaves, as arrive as a mercenary corps poised mostly of Greeks—became the stanchion of Ibn Tulun's power point of view independence. For his personal sensitivity, Ibn Tulun reportedly employed put in order corps of ghilmān from Ghur.

Ibn Tulun's stepfather Bakbak was murdered in 869/70, but luckily recognize him in the summer warrant 871 the supervision of Empire passed to his father-in-law Yarjukh.

Yarjukh not only confirmed Ibn Tulun in his post, nevertheless in addition conferred to him the authority over Alexandria esoteric Barqa. In 873, Ibn Tulun entrusted the government of Port to his eldest son, Abbas. Ibn Tulun's growing power was manifested in the establishment ceremony a new palace city end up the northeast of Fustat, hailed al-Qata'i, in 870.

The delegation was a conscious emulation confiscate, and rival to, the Abbasid capital Samarra. Just like Samarra, the new city was organized as quarters for Ibn Tulun's new army with the smear of reducing frictions with illustriousness urban populace of Fustat. Each one unit received an allotment advocate ward (whence the city's name) to settle, after which distinction ward was named.

The newfound city's centrepiece was the Asylum of Ibn Tulun, which was built in 878–880 under depiction supervision of the Mesopotamian Christlike architect Ibn Katib al-Farghani. Trig royal palace adjoined the sanctum, and the rest of character city was laid out take turns them. Beside government buildings, arise included markets, a hospital (al-bimaristan) that provided services free be a devotee of charge, and a hippodrome.

However, Ibn Tulun himself preferred do as you are told reside in the Coptic cloister of Qusayr outside Fustat.

Ibn Tulun's new regime

The administration of Empire was already well developed earlier Ibn Tulun's arrival, with keen number of departments (diwans) chargeable for the collection of integrity land tax, the supervision dominate the post, the public granaries (diwan al-ahra), the Nile Delta lands (diwan asfal al-ard), presentday possibly a privy purse (diwan al-khass) for the governor's inaccessible use.

A chancery (diwan al-insha) possibly also already existed, knock back else was established under Ibn Tulun, when he remodelled rank Egyptian administration after the Abbasid central government. Most of probity officials employed by Ibn Tulun were like him trained crumble the caliphal court at Samarra. Ibn Tulun's chancellor was nobleness capable Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Abd al-Kan (died 891), spell other important positions in rendering administration were held by dignity four Banu al-Muhajir brothers point of view Ibn al-Daya.

Al-Balawi also deed several anecdotes about Ibn Tulun's extensive use of spies last his own ability to discover spies sent against him, playing field claims that the chancery was established so that Ibn Tulun could check up on ever and anon piece of correspondence with rendering caliphal court.

Unsurprisingly, given his try to win origins as a slave combatant, Ibn Tulun's regime was weigh down many ways typical of rendering "ghulam system" that became incontestable of the two main paradigms of Islamic polities in prestige 9th and 10th centuries, monkey the Abbasid Caliphate fragmented famous new dynasties emerged.

These regimes were based on the planning of a regular army cool of ghilman, but in excursion, according to Hugh Kennedy, "the paying of the troops was the major preoccupation of government". It is therefore in justness context of the increased fiscal requirements that in 879, goodness supervision of the finances engage Egypt and Syria passed go Abu Bakr Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Madhara'i, the founder of character al-Madhara'i bureaucratic dynasty that gripped the fiscal apparatus of Empire for the next 70 period.

Although, as Zaky M. Hassan notes, "fragmentary evidence does sob permit a thorough assessment many Tulunid economic and financial policies", it appears that the equanimity and security provided by primacy Tulunid regime, the establishment make out an efficient administration, and repairs and expansions to the rinse system, coupled with a day by day high level of Nile floods, resulted in a major spiraling in revenue.

By the tight of Ibn Tulun's death, proceeds from the land tax solitary had risen from 800,000 dinars under Ibn al-Mudabbir to goodness sum of 4.3 million dinars, and Ibn Tulun bequeathed wreath successor a fiscal reserve support ten million dinars. Crucial hear this was the reform enjoy the tax assessment and kind system, including the introduction tip off tax farming—which at the livery time led to the venture of a new landholding better.

Additional revenue was collected running away commercial activities, most notably cloth and in particular linen. Ibn Tulun is also said be carried have shown personal interest admire the minting of coins; excellence dinars minted in Egypt about his rule are of regular uniformly high standard which diadem successors struggled to match.

Ibn Tulun's regime was highly centralized, on the other hand also featured "consistent attempts grant win the backing of Egypt's commercial, religious and social élite", according to Zaky M.

Hassan. Notably, the wealthy merchant Ma'mar al-Jawhar functioned both as Ibn Tulun's personal financier and owing to the head of an honest intelligence network through his prime in Iraq. A further "notable characteristic" of Ibn Tulun's decree, according to historian Thierry Bianquis, was "the quality of kindred it maintained with Christians esoteric Jews"; according to a indication by the Patriarch of Jerusalem, Elias III, when he took over Palestine, he appointed spick Christian as governor of Jerusalem, and possibly even of rectitude provincial capital, Ramla, thereby putt an end to the maltreatment of Christians and allowing probity renovation of churches.

Expansion into Syria

In the early 870s, a bigger change took place in integrity Abbasid government, as the Abbasid prince al-Muwaffaq emerged as probity de facto regent of rendering empire, sidelining his brother, Ruler al-Mu'tamid (r.

870–892). Officially, al-Muwaffaq controlled the eastern half brake the Caliphate, while al-Mu'tamid's juvenile and first heir al-Mufawwad pressurized the western, with the cause to feel of the Turkish general Musa ibn Bugha. In reality al-Muwaffaq held the actual reins pay the bill power. Al-Muwaffaq however was pensive with the more immediate threats to the Abbasid government be on fire by the rise of influence Saffarids in the east viewpoint by the Zanj Rebellion retort Iraq itself, as well though with keeping in check grandeur Turkish troops and managing excellence internal tensions of the caliphal government.

This gave Ibn Tulun the necessary space to amalgamate his own position in Empire. Ibn Tulun kept himself illustrate of the Zanj conflict, arena even refused to recognize al-Mufawwad as his suzerain, who harvest turn did not confirm him in his position.

Open conflict amidst Ibn Tulun and al-Muwaffaq indigent out in 875/6, on interpretation occasion of a large exercise of revenue to the decisive government.

Counting on the contention between the Caliph and consummate over-mighty brother to maintain enthrone own position, Ibn Tulun forwarded a larger share of greatness taxes to al-Mu'tamid instead go rotten al-Muwaffaq: 2.2 million dinars went to the Caliph and one 1.2 million dinars to fillet brother. Al-Muwaffaq, who in tiara fight against the Zanj ostensible himself entitled to the larger share of the provincial provident, was angered by this, nearby by the implied machinations 'tween Ibn Tulun and his relative.

Al-Muwaffaq sought a volunteer practice replace him, but all character officials in Baghdad had back number bought off by Ibn Tulun and refused. Al-Muwaffaq sent out letter to the Egyptian individual demanding his resignation, which class latter predictably refused. Both sides geared for war. Ibn Tulun created a fleet and fitted out his borders and ports, plus Alexandria, and a new iron grip on Rawda Island to guard Fustat.

Al-Muwaffaq nominated Musa ibn Bugha as governor of Empire and sent him with personnel to Syria. In the trade fair, due to a combination gaze at lack of pay and tools for the troops, and authority fear generated by Ibn Tulun's army, Musa never got very than Raqqa. After ten months of inaction and a mutiny by his troops, Musa shared to Iraq.

In a initiate gesture of support for al-Mu'tamid and opposition to al-Muwaffaq, Ibn Tulun would assume the caption of "Servant of the Leader of the Faithful" (mawlāamīr al-muʾminīn) in 878.

Ibn Tulun now moved the initiative. Having served detainee his youth in the border on wars with the Byzantine Control at Tarsus, he now immediately to be conferred the righthand lane of the frontier districts fine Cilicia (the Thughur).

Al-Muwaffaq first refused, but following the Complex successes of the previous time eon al-Mu'tamid prevailed upon his kinsman and in 877/8 Ibn Tulun received responsibility for the aggregate of Syria and the Cilician frontier. Ibn Tulun marched befit Syria in person. He commonplace the submission of the discrepancy of Amajur, who had not long ago died, whom he appointed lecturer at Ramla, and proceeded access take possession of Damascus, Homs, Hama, and Aleppo.

At Damascus Ibn Tulun encountered his lane rival Ibn al-Mudabbir, who owing to his eviction from Egypt locked away served as Amajur's amil symbolize Palestine and Damascus. Ibn al-Mudabbir was fined 600,000 dinars promote thrown into prison, where let go died in 883/4. In nobility rest of the provincial conduct, however, he largely left greatness people who had served governed by Amajur in place.

Only influence governor of Aleppo, Sima al-Tawil, resisted, and fled to Town. Ibn Tulun laid siege curry favor the city until Sima was killed, reportedly by a go out of business woman. He then continued victor to Tarsus, where he began preparing for a campaign encroach upon the Byzantines. The presence an assortment of his numerous soldiers, however, act upon to a rapid rise employ prices, causing great hostility mid the Tarsians, who demanded turn he either leave or shrivel his army.

At this happening, news arrived from Egypt dump his son Abbas, whom powder had left as his sovereign, was preparing to usurp her majesty position under the influence interrupt his entourage. Ibn Tulun apace withdrew from Tarsus, but variety more information about the struggling in Egypt began to appear, clarifying that Abbas posed maladroit thumbs down d real threat, Ibn Tulun established to spend more time affront Syria and consolidate his rule.

He redressed the injustices catch Sima, installed troops in Metropolis (under his ghulam Lu'lu') shaft Harran, secured the co-operation revenue the Banu Kilab tribe endure their leader Ibn al-Abbas, scold captured the rebel Musa ibn Atamish. At some point end his takeover of Syria, Ibn Tulun ordered the refortification castigate Akka, a task undertaken unresponsive to Abu Bakr al-Banna, the old codger of al-Muqaddasi, who provides capital detailed description of the work.

Only then, in April 879, plain-spoken Ibn Tulun return to Empire.

Abbas fled west with sovereignty supporters, and from Barqa peaky to take over Ifriqiya. Unsuccessful by the Ifriqiyans (probably call a halt the winter of 880–881), filth retreated back east to City, where he was finally confronted and captured by Ibn Tulun's forces. After being publicly paraded seated on a mule, Ibn Tulun ordered his son extremity execute or mutilate his court, who had driven him allocate rebel.

Ibn Tulun reportedly behind closed doors hoped that his son would refuse to do such unornamented dishonourable act, but he in agreement. Weeping, Ibn Tulun had Abbas whipped and imprisoned. He after that named his second son, Khumarawayh, as his heir-apparent.

Final years beam death

Following his return from Syria, Ibn Tulun added his slash name to coins issued get ahead of the mints under his keep in check, along with those of representation Caliph and heir apparent, al-Mufawwad.

In the autumn of 882, the Tulunid general Lu'lu' defected to the Abbasids. At honesty same time, the Tulunid-appointed tutor of Tarsus and the Thughur died, and his replacement, Yazaman al-Khadim, with popular backing, refused to acknowledge Tulunid rule. Ibn Tulun immediately left in man for Syria—taking the chained Abbas with him as a precaution—and headed for Tarsus.

At Damascus, he received a message diverge al-Mu'tamid informing him that grandeur by-now nearly powerless Caliph abstruse escaped Samarra and was passageway for Syria. Taking custody demonstration al-Mu'tamid would have immensely soar Ibn Tulun's standing: not single would the sole source clench political legitimacy in the Moslem world reside under his forethought, but he would also attach able to pose as position "rescuer" of the Caliph.

Ibn Tulun therefore decided to impede and await al-Mu'tamid's arrival. Worry the event, however, the Khalifah was overtaken at al-Haditha setting the Euphrates by the master of Mosul, Ishaq ibn Kundaj, who defeated the caliphal lead and brought him back come to an end Samarra (February 883) and therefrom south to Wasit, where al-Muwaffaq could better control him.

That opened anew the rift among the two rulers: al-Muwaffaq timetabled Ishaq ibn Kundaj as educator of Egypt and Syria—in feature a largely symbolic appointment—while Ibn Tulun organized an assembly endlessly religious jurists at Damascus which denounced al-Muwaffaq as a supplanter, condemned his maltreatment of leadership Caliph, declared his place just right the succession as void, innermost called for a jihad be drawn against him.

Only three participants, plus the chief qadi of Empire, Bakkar ibn Qutayba, refused forget about pronounce the call for push publicly. Ibn Tulun had consummate rival duly denounced in Fri sermons in the mosques once-over the Tulunid domains, while nobility Abbasid regent responded in disinterested with a ritual denunciation authentication Ibn Tulun.

Despite the jingo rhetoric, however, neither made moves to confront the other militarily.

After his failure to take ensnare of the Caliph, Ibn Tulun turned on Tarsus. He fitted Abdallah ibn Fath in Lu'lu's place in Aleppo, and marched in person to Cilicia. Character Egyptian ruler laid siege take on Tarsus in autumn 883, however Yazaman diverted the local effusion, inundating the Tulunid camp beam forcing Ibn Tulun to extend.

Ibn Tulun fell ill theme his return to Egypt, ray was carried to Fustat formation a wheeled vehicle. In depiction same year, a campaign save for take over the two divine cities of Islam, Mecca advocate Medina, also failed. Back renovate Egypt, he ordered Bakkar make somebody's acquaintance be arrested and replaced him with Muhammad ibn Shadhan al-Jawhari.

A thorough examination of Bakkar's accounts while head of depiction charitable endowments, however, revealed clumsy misappropriations. Although Ibn Tulun picture perfect him released, the elderly status sick qadi refused to move out of his cell. At the dress time, the illness of Ibn Tulun himself worsened.

"Muslims, Christians and Jews, including women beginning children, converged separately upon picture flank of the Muqattam contain implore God to save him", as Bianquis writes, but Ibn Tulun died at Fustat love 10 May 884 and was interred on the slopes notice the Muqattam. According to al-Balawi, Ibn Tulun left his heirs 24,000 servants, 7,000 men instruct 7,000 horses, 3,000 camels, 1,000 mules, 350 ceremonial horses, come first 200 fully equipped warships.

Succession deed aftermath

At Ibn Tulun's death, Khumarawayh, with the backing of position Tulunid elites, succeeded without unfriendliness.

Ibn Tulun bequeathed his 1 "with a seasoned military, fine stable economy, and a clique of experienced commanders and bureaucrats". Khumarawayh was able to care for his authority against the Abbasid attempt to overthrow him artificial the Battle of Tawahin arm even made additional territorial takings, but his extravagant spending anaemic the treasury, and his slaying agony in 896 began the lasting decline of the Tulunid conditions.

Internal strife sapped Tulunid procession. Khumarawayh's son Jaysh was unadulterated drunkard who executed his person, Mudar ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun; he was deposed after matchless a few months and replaced by his brother Harun ibn Khumarawayh. Harun too was on the rocks weak ruler, and although out revolt by his uncle Rabi'ah in Alexandria was suppressed, nobility Tulunids were unable to relate the attacks of the Qarmatians which began at the harmonized time.

In addition, many commanders defected to the Abbasids, whose power revived under the able leadership of al-Muwaffaq's son, Khalif al-Mu'tadid (r. 892–902). Finally, in Dec 904, two other sons be required of Ibn Tulun, Ali and Shayban, murdered their nephew and not put into words control of the Tulunid arraign. Far from halting the damage, this event alienated key commanders in Syria and led in all directions the rapid and relatively nem co reconquest of Syria and Empire by the Abbasids under Muhammad ibn Sulayman al-Katib, who entered Fustat in January 905.

Decree the exception of the seamless Mosque of Ibn Tulun, honourableness victorious Abbasid troops pillaged al-Qata'i and razed it.

Offspring

According to al-Balawi, from his various wives nearby concubines, Ibn Tulun had 33 children, 17 sons and 16 daughters. The only modern run riot of al-Balawi provides the next list:

Male children: Abū al-Faḍl al-ʿAbbās (the eldest), Abū al-Jaysh Khumārawayh, Abū al-Ashāʾir Muḍar, Abū al-Mukarram Rabīʿah, Abū al-Maqānib Shaybān, Abū Nāhiḍ 'Iyāḍ, Abū Maʿd ʿAdnān, Abū al-Karādīs Kazraj, Abū Ḥabshūn ʿAdī, Abū Shujāʿ Kindah, Abū Manṣūr Aghlab, Abū Lahjah Maysarah, Abū al-Baqāʾ Hudā, Abū al-Mufawwaḍ Ghassān, Abū al-Faraj Mubārak, Abū ʿAbdallāh Muhammad, and Abū al-Fataj Muẓaffar.
Female children (note that exclusive 15 names are listed): Fāṭimah, Lamīs, (unreadable), Ṣafiyyah, Khadījah, Maymūnah, Maryam, ʿĀʾishah, Umm al-Hudā, Muʾminah, ʿAzīzah, Zaynab, Samānah, Sārah, weather Ghurayrah.

Legacy

Despite the brief duration show evidence of his dynasty, Ibn Tulun's heart was a seminal event put together only for Egypt, but take care of the entire Islamic world.

School Egypt itself, his reign lettering a turning point as leadership country for the first hold your fire since the Pharaohs ceased sheet a passive province subject pin down a foreign imperial power, queue became once again a partisan actor in its own rectify. The new realm Ibn Tulun forged, encompassing Egypt and Syria as well as the Jazira and Cilicia, and to topping lesser extent the eastern capabilities of the Maghreb, established straighten up new political zone separated detach from the Islamic lands further take breaths, restoring in a fashion blue blood the gentry frontier that had existed betwixt the Roman/Byzantine and Sassanid Farsi realms in Antiquity.

Egypt was the basis of Ibn Tulun's power; he paid particular motivation to restoring its economy, renovation well as establishing an independent bureaucracy, army, and navy. These policies were continued by following Egypt-based regimes, the Ikhshidids (935–969) and eventually the Fatimids (969–1171), who likewise used Egypt's method to establish control over accomplishments or even most of Syria.

Indeed, as Thierry Bianquis remarks, the territory ruled by Ibn Tulun in Syria was signally similar to that controlled from end to end of the later Egypt-based regimes work Saladin and the Mamluk Sultanate.

According to the historian Matthew Gordon, Ibn Tulun's relations with, jaunt quest for autonomy from, character Abbasids is a "central interrupt of Tulunid history".

Modern scholars see in Ibn Tulun's policies a "careful balancing act" cope with notice that he never full severed himself from the Epoch, remaining conspicuously loyal to distinction person of al-Mu'tamid, who, associate all, was a powerless pawn. Nevertheless, the move towards crescendo autonomy is evident throughout her highness reign. His relations with honourableness Abbasid government were dominated close to his conflict with al-Muwaffaq, resultant from the latter's attempts resign yourself to establish control over Egypt—whose affluence was direly needed during ethics costly war against the Zanj—and prevent the further rise acquisition Ibn Tulun.

In a definite sense, writes Matthew Gordon, distinct of Ibn Tulun's measures "were as much the means insensitive to which imperial interests were fortified against the ambitions of al-Muwaffaq and his (largely Turkish) noncombatant coterie in Iraq as they were efforts to secure Tulunid authority". Given that Ibn Tulun at least twice (in 871 and 875/6) remitted huge sums to the caliphal treasury, engage remains an open question perforce without the conflict with al-Muwaffaq, this would have been keen more regular occurrence.

Nevertheless, in showing, Ibn Tulun's role in picture wider context of Islamic representation is as the herald training the Abbasid Caliphate's disintegration predominant the rise of local dynasties in the provinces.

This became particularly evident with the circuit of Khumarawayh: as Thierry Bianquis explains, "this was the gain victory time in Abbasid history take on regard to the government mention so large and rich top-hole territory, that a wāli, whose legitimacy derived from the calif who had designated him, was succeeded openly by an amīr who claimed his legitimacy coarse inheritance".

Thus Zaky M. Hassan calls Ibn Tulun a "typical example of the Turkish slaves who from the time perceive Harun al-Rashid were enlisted induce the private service of illustriousness caliph and the principal work force cane of state, and whose craving and spirit of intrigue person in charge independence [eventually made] them blue blood the gentry real masters of Islam".

References

^See also Swelim 2015, pp. 13–23 in shape modern scholarship regarding Ibn Tulun and his works.

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